IV: Pattern, prescription, plan
content
Definitions
Mental models of early man
Mental models: doctrine, mentality, Denkarten, opinions, prescriptions
Nations as models
Concrete models as patterns
see also chap. V: Paragon, idol
chap. VII: Explanation, interpretation
Definitions
As early as 1611 we read in Randle Cotgrave’s dictionary of French-English (1611):
“Modeler: To modell, forme, fashion, plot, cast in a mould.
Modelle (f.): A modell, patterne, mould, plot, forme, frame.“
In the famous French "Encyclopédie" (1765, vol. 10) we read under „modèle“ e. g.:
„ ... est en particulier en usage dans les bâtimens, & il signifie un patron artificiel ...".
In the first edition of the „Encyclopaedia Britannica“ (1771) a short section of the „Encyclopédie“ is translated literally:
“Model, in a general sense, an original pattern, proposed for any one to copy or imitate. Model is particularly used, in building, for an artificial pattern, made in wood, stone, plaster, or other matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order for the better conducting and executing some great work, and to give an idea of the effect it will have in large. In all great buildings, it is much the surest way to make a model in relievo, and not to trust to a bare design or draught.”
Wilhelm Traugott Krug (1827-29) broadened the definition in his dictionary of the philosophical sciences:
„Model is the pattern to which we conform in one or another respect – scientific, artistic or moral – that is, the pattern determines our actions (modus agendi).“
Mental models of early man
Early man develops the idea of causality
According to the physician Walter J. Garre (1982, 41) man’s first mental pattern was the idea of causality. Maybe 5 million years ago, just when the precursors of humans split off from the ape line, these beings ran onto a hill in order to secure themselves against wild animals that were chasing them. At the top, they loosened big rocks and started them rolling down the hill to kill the wild animals. That continued on over thousands of years until an idea of causality arose.
After this understanding of the relation between cause and effect the humans got the ability to deal successfully with the threat of wild animals and a self-confidence in the sense "I am somebody, I can cause something".
The result was conceit: "Everything revolves around me", and: "I can govern everything." What we can not govern - tempests, inundations, drought – we give a human face or attribute spiritual qualities. That is the origin of magic thinking. We attempt to make these powers favorable through oblations or rituals.
Early man develops spatial competence
For the last 2.5 million years in tool production and 1.5 million years for the regulation of fire „mental abilities“ have been required. Archaeologist John A. J. Gowlett (1984; 1985) is convinced that early man had already a precise pattern for the steps in the procedure that led to making a simple tool: For an “Olduwan” tool three strokes were sufficient, for the more complicated tools of the “Acheuléen industry” there were needed at least 25 to 65 strokes.
Thomas Grant Wynn (1989) convincingly describes the "evolution of spatial competence". As early as 1.5 million years BC, man had rudimentary ideas of symmetry and measure. Already 750,000 years ago man showed geometrical sense as is shown from an investigation of thousands of hand axes Kilombe (Gowlett, 1985, 54f, 70f). The hand axes of 500,000 BC required already dimensional sense for perspective and congruence. Perspective makes it possible to recognize the same thing from different sides as the same.
John Desmond Bernal (1970, 69) describes to what extent the craft of the Old Stone Age used patterns: "From the existence of standardized devices we can draw the conclusion that already an idea of the object must have existed in the head of the manufacturer before he started the actual production.”
And more: Partly finished flints point on the fact that before beginning of the actual treatment there were produced blanks. Later these experiences developed in conscious looking ahead to drafts and plans, and from this to the characteristic of science: the experimental method. That means one tried out different procedures for the production of objects with the help of models or designs, instead of relying on tests in the original scale."
Other mental patterns of early man
Among other mental patterns there are morale, competition and cooperation, ritual and ideology. In 1976, Volker Schurig published an interesting study on the development of consciousness ("Entstehung des Bewusstseins") over the last 10 million years (Schurig, 1976). The first ideology may have been matriarchy (Fester et al., 1979). With regard to the phylogenetic roots of human cognition, motivation and morale, the psychologists Norbert and Doris Bischof have gained considerable knowledge (1978-93). Paleontologist Richard Erskine Leakey (Leakey, Lewin, 1992) speculated on the „mental models“ of Australophithecus – „fairly chimpanzee-like“ - and early Homo sapiens – „more mature“.
Of course most activities of early man required mental patterns for processes as collecting and storing of various things, entrapment and hunting, plucking, eviscerate and rosting, preparing for defense, shelter, roost and warmth, etc.
Moral
Richard Erskine Leakey and Roger Lewin (1992, 307) describe the Homo erectus as follows: "Next to the technical skills of planning, coordinating and toolmaking was the equally important social ability of cooperation. She was a sense for common objectives and values, a strive to advance the good tgether. So cooperation was much more than only go in the same direction. It became a system of behavioral rules, a morality, a sense for right and wrong in a complex social system. Without cooperation our technical capabilities would have been attenuated very much."
Ritual
According to many researchers art is linked to cultic action. Therefore it is assumed that caveman perhaps already Neanderthal man, practiced rituals. Probably they were coducted by “experts” as priestesses, magicians or shamans.
bibliography
model: special topics - Vorgeschichte
Mental models: doctrine, mentality, Denkarten, opinions, prescriptions
„The pattern of sound teaching“
With regard to a careful historical presentation of the development of the term „system“, Alois von der Stein (1968, 6) points to the fact that for the marking of a "systematic compilation" the term "hypotyposis" was used besides „syntaxis“ and „syntagma“. We meet „hypotyposis“ twice for the composition of the Christian doctrine in salvation-historical intention in the New Testament (New International Version): " What you heard from me (Paulus), keep as the pattern of sound teaching, with faith and love in Christ Jesus“ (2. Tim. 1, 13; "formam habe sanorum verborum").
Also the gospel as a field of activity (Zwingli) or sphere of influence (Luther) can be seen as "canon" (2. Kor. 10, 13ff; Gal. 6, 16; lat. "regula"), whose measure ("metron", "mensura", 2. Kor. 10, 13ff – „standard of measurement“; see Rom. 12, 3 – „measure of faith“; Eph. 4, 7 – „as Christ apportioned it“) God has assigned to everyone, just as he determines (1. Kor. 12, 11).
Mentality, ideology
Ideas we bear in our mids shape thinking and behavior of each person and of groups of people. Think of slavery and slave trade from Antiquity till the 19th century, think of the feudal system and knighthood in the Middle Ages, the artist-engineer and the “ego” in Renaissance (Pico della Mirandola, Rabelais), think of enlightenment, democracy, socialism and imperialism, or dignity, honesty and justice, fairness and “political correctness”, etc.
In 1928 the philosopher Hans Leisegang published „Denkformen“, and some years later the physician and bacteriologist Ludwik Fleck an „Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv“ (1935; Engl. translation 1977). In the 1960s Hermann Schüling pusblished „Denkstil - Beschreibung und Deutung der Denkformen“ (1964) and Arnold Keyserling a „Geschichte der Denkstile“ (1968).
The word „mindset“ in the title of Carole Dweck’s book on „the new psychology of success“ (2006) has been translated in German as „Selbstbild“ (2007).
For Denkarten, Denkstile, Denktypen see:
For „Denkmodelle“ in the Midde Ages see:
The Concept of Model and its Triple History – paragraph:
500-1500: Models for thinking and for behavior
in German:
Modellgeschichte ist Kulturgeschichte – paragraph: 500-1500: Denkmodelle und Verhaltensanweisungen; and
Denk- und Verhaltensmodelle des Mittelalters
Paradigm: Current opinion
In the 1950s the theoretician of science, Thomas S. Kuhn has digged out the well-known word „paradigm“, which in antiquity denoted e. g. the architectural model. Kuhn used it in a special meaning as „current opinion“ – cultural anthropologists speak of „belief system“.
Kuhn asserts that paradigms are „generally accepted scientific achievements which furnish models or solutions for some time to a community of specialists“ (1973, 11). Inspired by Kuhn the philosopher Imre Lakatos developed the idea of „research programmes“ as synthesis of the falsificationism of Karl Raimund Popper and the revolutionary structure of science described by Kuhn. „Research programmes“ are a series of slightly different theories and experimental techniques arranged around a „hard core“. Scientists try to protect this core by a belt of „auxiliary hypotheses“.
Prescriptions or receipts
At least since 1840 we find, especially in England and in the United States, model acts/ codes/ laws.
Since 1942, more and more political, economic and social drafts or conceptions to be tested or followed as well as prescriptions or receipts have been named “model”.
Early examples are the “Model Code of Evidence” of 1942 and the preparation of the “Model Penal Code” (1956-62) by the American Law Institute as well as the German “Honnefer Modell” for promoting students at the universities in the 1950s or the “Harzburger Modell” of leadership in the 1960s.
For some process models guiding management and engineering see Fig. 48.
For research on orientation plans in the brain see Fig. 74: Theories of representation.
Nations as models
Sometimes whole nations are regarded as models for other nations. One of the favourites is Switzerland. Already in 1895 Grenfell Baker saw it as „Model Republic“. Later authors spoke of the „Swiss model for Europe“ (W. M. Wilson, 1942; Denis de Rougemont, 1965 – viz. also Theodor Schieder, 1948; Max Beloff 1959).
China is seen as a „model for Europe“ (Lewis Adams Maverick, 1946) and as model of the communist struggle against the Church (François Dufay, 1956), but also as model for developing countries (Peter S. H. Tang, 1960; Werner Klatt, 1963 and 1965; Al Imfeld 1974).
Further as models for developing countries the Philippine model (Bruno Lasker, 1942), the Japanese model (Solomon B. Levine, 1963; Bruce F. Johnston, 1970) as well as the model of Soviet Russia (W. Donald Bowles, 1962) have been disputed.
Enrique Aimone saw the „EEC as model for latin American integration“ (1968), Hudson Strode Sweden no less than as a „Model for a World“ (1949).
Concrete models as patterns
In the Scripture: Architectural models as patterns
In the book Exodus (25, 9) of the 6th century BC we read: “According to all that I shew thee, after the pattern of the tabernacle, and the pattern of all the instruments thereof, even so shall ye make it.”
In the 1. Chronicles (28, 11 f. – around 300 BC) we read: " Then David gave to Solomon his son the pattern of the porch, and of the houses thereof, and of the treasuries thereof, and of the upper chambers thereof, and of the inner parlours thereof, and of the place of the mercy seat, and the pattern of all that he had by the sprit.“
Taylor’s dummies
In the grave of the Egyptian king Tutenchamon a wooden torso was found, presumable used as a tailor’s dummy. In Old Greece they made jointed dolls of clay.
At the courts in the Middle Ages there were tailor’s dummies in the precise sizes of the noblemen and noblewomen so that the tailor could adapt his cloths without bothering them.
Patterns for craftsmen and women: From Old Egypt to Renaissance
Already in Old Egypt we have illustrated books on papyrus scrolls, "continuous cyclic series of pictures, perhaps accompanied by short explaining texts, partly thought as patterns for craftsmen of all kinds" (Hunger, 1965, 512; Hoesch, 1997; Meissner, 1999). That were real pattern books.
Robert W. Scheller (1995) collected and described with utmost care 28 model books with patterns for illustrations and architecture from 900-1470. It is followed by the well-known collection by Arthur Lotz (1933) of Renaissance figured patterns for tissues and knitwear, embroideries and laces (see already J. L. Frisch 1741; J. G. Krünitz 1803; J. u. W. Grimm 1885).
Beautiful examples are from the 11th century the codex of the learned monk Adémar of Chabannes (1025) and from the first half oft the 13th century the album, sketch book or lodge-book by Villard de Honnecourt (1235; edited by Jean Baptiste Antoine Lassus (1858), Hans Robert Hahnloser (1935), Theodore Robert Bowie (1959), François Bucher (1979), Alain Erlande-Brandenburg et al. (1986) and Carl F. Barnes (2007)) and the pattern books of Rein (A. Timm 1964, 15) and Wolfenbuettel. In Villard we find not only many sketches and architectural drawings but also patterns for architecture forms (Roland Bechmann, 1991).
Combined with the portrait books of the „Zwölfbruderstiftung“ of the Nuremberg Konrad Mendel (since 1425; C. Graf v. Klinckowstroem 1959, 76f. – edited by Wilhelm Treue, 1965) thementioned works initiated the growing stream of books, carefully illustrated with portrayals from technics and economy. Mostly neither the handicraft nor the belligerent component was omitted (e. g. "Bellifortis" by Konrad Kyeser, 1405).
The invention of the letterpress around 1460 pushed the diffusion of model books.
Public autorities regulate patterns
At the same time public authorities tried to regulate commercial patterns, e g. for goldsmiths, gunsmiths, cabinetmakers, etc. They commanded an example of every used pattern and obliged all craftsmen to abide by them. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (1885) mention also deposited patterns for such different objects as bricks, trawls and pacts (secundum pacti normam).
The cobbler makes slippers, shoes and boots and on his last (super modulo) - see J. A. Comenius, 1658, 128f.
Francis Bacon: „patterns and samples“
In the context of research laboratories and tools of the workshops of mechanical arts Francis Bacon gives account in his "New Atlantis" (written 1624) of many inventions:
„Many of them are grown into use throughout the kingdom, but yet, if they did flow from our invention, we have of them also for patterns and principals” (Latin.: Exemplaria, tamquam primigenia, et optime elaborata). And: „For our ordinances and rites we have two very long and fair galleries. In one of these we place patterns and samples of all manner of the more rare and excellent inventions; in the other we place the statues of all principal inventors.”
Since 1545: Pattern sheets and books
Since 1545 sheets of papers for modeling are preserved. „Muster für Goldschmiede, Kunstschreiner, Büchsenschäfter usw.“ were printed 1549 in Zurich. In the same year appeared by P. Flötner postum in Nuremberg a series of „Ornamentholzschnitten mit Vorlagen für Tischlerarbeiten nach oberitalienischen Vorbildern“. Soon followed some books for cabinetmakers“. Gabriel Schlüsselberger’s „Musterbuch für Stuckaturen” (pattern book for stucco work) is dated ca. 1550.
Later instructions for craftsmen are e. g. by Simon Cammermeier (1678) on the Vitruvian measure (denoted „Modell”) or Thomas Miller: „The compleat modellist, or, Art of rigging: shewing an exact way of raising the model of any ship or vessel“ (1676).
A whole host of model or pattern books has been edited since 1750. Legendary is the sales catalogue for furniture of Thomas Chippendale (1754; facsimile edition 2005). Another catalogue is by Johann Michael Kirschbaum (1771). A bestseller became Thomas Sheraton’s: „The cabinet-maker and upholsterer's drawing-book” since 1793 (reprint 1972), immediately translated in German with the title: „Lehrbuch für Innenausstatter. Modell- und Zeichnungsbuch“ (1794). Reversely Bernhard Heinrich Blasche’s „Papparbeiter“ (1797, 5th ed. 1847) was translated in English: ”Papyro-plastics, or The art of modeling in paper” (1824). Johann Riem published: „Modell-Magazin für Ökonomen“ (1802-1803).
Anatomical pattern-books: the human body and single bones
Dante (in „Purgatorio“, 1321) assumes the use of pattern-books by painters:
„Come pittor che con esemplo pinga ...“
Pattern-books of the anatomy of the human body appear since 1530 (Boris Röhrl, 2000, 62-100). First there were anonymous sheets that have to be copied by the beginner. Early collections of such drawings of the human body and his details – especially single bones - are the Bandinelli album in the British Museum in London and the convolute Siena MS.S.II.5 in the Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati in Siena arund 1550.
Some kind of teaching manuals in a relatively advanced and developed form are from Rosso Fiorentino (not perserved), Alessandro Allori (ca. 1561-69) and Bartolomeo Passarotti (ca. 1585). The famous Book of Benvenuto Cellini on the teaching of drawing (ca. 1560) is an explanation of anatomy for artists in a written text without illustrations.
The first printed book on artistic anatomy ist he four-volume work of the Spanish gold- and silversmith Juan de Arphe y Villafañe: „De varia commensuración para la Esculptura y Architectura“ (1585-87). The second volue explains the human figure. Up to 1806 eight editions have been published.
„ecorché“: three-dimensional muscular figure
As Vasary (1568) states, the first three-dimensional muscular figure, the so-called „écorchés“, have been formed in the erarly 15th century (Boris Röhrl, 2000, 10-11; 79-89). After 1550 they were produced and used more frequently. 1734 the sculptor Ercole Lelli made two life-sized écorchés from wood for the „Teatro anatomic dell’Archiginnasio“ of the Bolognese University. Still Goethe (in his Italian Journey“, 1787) has been impressed in Rome by „a very beautiful muscle body“. Important creators of écorchés at that time were the sculptors Edme Bouchardon (in Paris), Jean Antoine Houdon (in Rom), Johann Martin Fischer (in Wien) and Jean Galbert Savage (in Paris).
Early drawings of human bodies with exaggerated muscles are by Antonio Pollaiuolo – his famous „Battle of the Nudes“ (dated 1465 to 1488; Boris Röhrl, 2000, 36-37) – and by Leonardo da Vinci.
Ecorchés are regarded as an autonomous method of artistic anatomy. Therefore for a log time they were not accompaind by explanatory texts or illustrations. The first printed manual containing some plates depicting a drawn écorché in the pose of Lodovico Cigoli’s „Bella notomia“ is of 1586 (Boris Röhrl, 2000, 81-82). Famous for his exaggerated drawings of muscles is the omnibus with copper engravings after Peter Paul Rubens, the so-called „Rubens Anatomy“ (around 1650). The artist invented muscles, and many anatomical objects are drawn inaccurately because he intended to dramatize the surface (Boris Röhrl, 2000, 101, 120-124, 131).
In 1679 the painter and engraver Carlo Cesio published a manual „Cognitione de muscoli“, which became famous under the title of the second edition „Anatomia dei pittori“ (1697). The manual was translated in French, German and Russian.
In 1780 and 1781 Antonio Cattani etched three almost life-sized prints of the wooden écorchés, Ercole Lelli had made half a century before for the University of Bologna.
Bibliography
Modell: einzelne Sachgebiete - model: special topics
Philosophie des Denkens, Denkpsychologie, Problemlösen und Kognitive Psychologie
Modell, Model, Modellierung – model, modeling, modelling
Dr. phil. Roland Müller, Switzerland / Copyright © by Mueller Science 2001-2016 / All rights reserved
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